Note: This section is intended to list some of the highlights (and lowlights) of Belarusian history. Refer to the more detailed reference material listed here for a more complete summary.
For information about books, refer to the Belarus History books listings on this A Belarus Miscellany Web site.
Also refer to the Events Calendar section of this A Belarus Miscellany Web site for possible events, celebrations, conferences, etc., related to Belarusian history, and especially concerning individuals being honored.
The most pressing issue regarding the history of Belarus is that an honest effort be made to record it and to make it widely available. Obvious as this may sound to many of us, this doesn't seem to be the case for the authorities in the Republic of Belarus. In fact, the opposite trend has been taking place since at least 1995. (For example, there were plans to open up the KGB records, but that never occurred.) This repressive trend includes school textbooks, reference books, general history references, and of course all forms of news media. Refer to the Examples of Censorship section for further notes on this topic.
The Soviet and the post-Soviet eras in Belarus view propaganda as the ultimate use of information. The search for historical accuracy and the "facts" that comprise it have no place in such thinking. The historical period of imperial Russia demonstrates that this trend by Belarus' eastern neighbor started hundreds of years ago. Of course, this is not to say that history is monolithic with total agreement, nor recorded with complete honesty, for any region of the world. Nonetheless, the era of the USSR is much, much below the standards in most of the world.
Certainly, the Republic of Belarus must have friendly relations with all of her neighbors, and not be dependent upon any one of them. If history can reveal anything, it is clearly that fact. For most of the twentienth century, as Germany has been politically and economically influential for much of western Europe, Russia has been in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Such "influences" on Belarus (particularly by the various Russian & Soviet states) have not only killed many Belarusians but also often specifically sought out national leaders, destroyed national treasures (many times wantonly), and cultural resources in general. Needless to say, such influences have also been been quite detrimental to the national identity of the population through to the present.
Geography's Effect on History
"The course of early Belarusan history was defined primarily by the country's waterways, as in so many other parts of the world. Belarus's 10,800 lakes attracted early settlers. And the Dnieper River enabled ancient merchants and adventurous Vikings to go south toward Kiev and Byzantium, whereas the Dvina secured access to the Baltic Sea and the Hanseatic cities. The upper regions of the Dnieper and the Dvina provided connections with the Volga basin, opening the way south to the Caspian Sea, Persia, and the Arab world. The Prypiat' River in the southern part of the country has served as a bridge between the Dnieper and the Vistula in Poland. A network of more than 20,000 tributaries--48 of them at least 100 kilometers long--cover Belarus's inland."
Belarus: At a Crossroads in
History, by Jan Zaprudnik, p. 5.
"The ancestors of the Belarusans have been known throughout history under various names. Of these one is particularly important because it provides a key to understanding the Belarusan people's role in the history of the medieval empire known as the Grand Duchy of Litva (Lithuania), Rus', and Samogitia.
The lengthy name of this state is often abbreviated--whether for purely practical reasons or because of ulterior motives--to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL), or simply to Lithuania. The GDL was a polyethnic dynastic empire where local customs and the Christian Church were respected and where new Lithuanian rulers, still pagan, underwent acculturation by the ruled.
The GDL began expanding in the mid-thirteenth century; at its territorial peak two centuries later, it stretched from the Baltic coast to the Black Sea, encompassing all of Belarus, a large part of Ukraine, and some Russian lands. In 1430 the ratio of these areas to Lithuania proper was approximately twelve to one.
At the time of the political union between the GDL and the kingdom of Poland in 1569, when Ukraine was transferred from the GDL to the Polish kingdom, Belarus remained in the duchy. During this period, some Lithuanian princes embraced eastern-rite Christianity, and Belarusan was the official language of the ducal chancellery and courts."
Timeline Related to the Grand Duchy of Litva, Rus', and Samogitia
About 1230s - Beginning of the feudal monarchy by Grand Duke Mindouh, catalyzed by the aggression of the German Knights (Teutonic Order). Lands included parts of present-day Belarus and Lithuania. Capital city was Navahradak (Novogrodok; until 1323).
14th century through 1569 - parts of present-day Ukraine added. Capital city becomes Vilnia after 1323 (Vilnius, Wilno, Vilna).
14th century through 1530s - parts of present-day Russia added.
1385-1569 - The polyethnic state was in a personal union with Poland through common rulers, who were kings of Poland and grand dukes of the GDL. Territorial peak for the GDL occurred around the mid-15th century.
1569-1795 - The two states (Poland and the GDL) were federated into a Commonwealth. See map. Ukraine is transferred from the GDL to the Polish crown.
The preceding information compiled chiefly from the entry for the GDL in the Historical Dictionary of Belarus (Zaprudnik, 1998; p. 112-13):
Links to Grand Duchy of Litva, Rus', and Samogitia Information on the WWW
Summary of the article, "The Origins of the Grand Duchy of Litva, Rus', and Samogitia," by J.Kreuski from the periodical, the Belarusian Review, Summer, 1991.
Refer to this section of the Lithuania Home Page for a discussion of the state emblem for Lithuania which has a shared history with that of Belarus:
The State Emblem of Lithuania.
Lithuanian Metrika is a 556 volume archive of documents of the State Chancellery of the Grand Duchy of Litva, Rus', and Samogitia (GDL), which was under the personal control of the Chanceller of the GDL. This archive contained originals and copies of all documents issued in a period from 1386 to 1794 by the State Chancellery.
The Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Litva, Rus', and Samogitia (GDL) were a great achievement of Belarusan Law. They were written during the 16th century and are among first European constitutions and Law codes. They have served later as an etalon to other European nations. The Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Litva, Rus', and Samogitia are considered to be one of the main treasures (in addition to Lithuanian Metrics) of Belarusan, Lithuanian, and Polish culture.
On July 15, 1410, a decisive battle, one of the biggest in the Middle Ages, took place near the village of Grunwald (also known as Tannenberg). On one side were the Teutonic Knights with West European mercenaries, about 27,000 soldiers commanded by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. On the other was a larger army of Jagiello and Vitaut, supported by Czech and vassal Tartar contingents, of about 39,000 men. The allied forces included a unit from Bierascie. By the end of the day, the Teutonic Knights were defeated. Some 8,000 of them were slain, including the Grand Master of the Order.
The Battle of Orsha (September 8, 1514)
In 1514, a military force comprising approximately 30 thousand men of the Grand Duchy of Litva, Rus', and Samogitia; led by Hetman Astrozhski (Konstantin Ostrozhsky); defeated an army of approximately 80 thousand men of the Moscow Princedom near the town of Orsha.
A few national white-red-white flags were hung out ahead of September 8 in Minsk. By so doing ZUBR activists marked the national holiday – the Military Glory Day, reminding everyone of it. The flags appeared over the street in Malinovka and Kurasovschina suburban areas, as well as in Uruchie. All flags were put up above the high voltage lines and roofs of the blocks of flats.
Every year on September 8 Belarusians celebrate the Day of the Belarusian military glory. On that day in 1514 the army of the Great Lithuanian Dukedom, headed by commander Konstantin Ostorzhsky, defeated the thrice exceeding in number Moscow troops. The Orsha battle remains by right one of the most significant victories in Belarus’ struggle for independence from outside invaders.
"Forty kilometres from Mensk, in a picturesque area of 160 hectares, an attempt to reconstruct an 18th, 19th, and early 20th century Belarusian village is being made." (On belarus.net, which does not seem to be available currently -- sorry)
The uprising began in Poland in March of 1794 under the leadership of Gen. Tadevuss Kaxciusska (Thaddeus Kosciusko). The revolt was actively supported by landless and impoverished nobility who were overwhelmingly in favor of restoring Litva's sovereignty.
"Kalinoŭski defended the Uniate confession of Belarusans and denounced the exploitation and oppression of the Belarusan people by tsarist bureaucrats. His publications influenced the development of Belarusan language, journalism, and nationalism. . . . He was publicly executed in Vilnia on March 24, 1864. The ill-fated uprising of 1863-64 marked the end of an era in Byelorussian history. . . ."
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918):
No involvement by Belarusian representatives in this treaty (as was normal for most of decisions made about Belarus during its modern history).
Treaty at the end of WWI that included in its terms the loss of Belarusian lands and partition of what remained of it. As a result, the Council of the Belarusan Democratic [National] Republic declared the independence of Belarus on March 25, 1918.
March 25, 1918: The anniversary of the declaration of independence by the Executive Committee of the Council of the first All-Belarusian Congress
Anti-Bolshevik military action in the region of Slutsk [Slucak] in November-December, 1920, organized by representatives of the Belarusan Democratic [National] Republic. The immediate causes were the Bolshevik food confiscation and the cultural policy of the Soviet regime.
Treaty of Riga (1921):
No involvement by Belarusian representatives in this treaty (as was normal for most of decisions made about Belarus during its modern history).
Settled the Polish-Soviet War. As a result, Belarus was divided into Soviet and Polish sections.
Soviet Atrocities: Kurapaty -- Site of Soviet Massacre of 200,000 Belarusians & Others, 1937-1941
An example of the widespread mass murder and terror of the Soviet period. A documentary film produced in 2003 mentions that 48 sites of mass murder are within the territory of Belarus, with 12 in the Miensk city area, Kurapaty only being one of the larger ones.
Today, many people in Belarus still either don't believe such things happened during the Soviet period or else blame it on the Nazis.
Follow this link for information about the source book of the material on the Web.
For a more detailed, comprehensive view of Soviet murders of its citizens (estimated at over 60 million, plus additional millions more due to starvation), read Alexander N. Yakovlev's, A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia, Yale University Press (New Haven and London), 2002. ISBN: 0-300-08760-8.
September, 1939: The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and its Effects on Belarus
No involvement by Belarusian representatives in this treaty (as was normal for most of decisions made about Belarus during its modern history).
During a scholarly conference in Mensk, Belarus (Yubileinaya Hotel; December, 1999): "David R. Marples, professor of history at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada, spoke about the period in Belarus' history after the annexation of Western Belarus to the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic in September 1939 until the Nazi invasion."
"In Mr. Marples' opinion, Soviet historians' thesis that the 'annexation' (sic) of Western Belarus to the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic under the Molotov-Ribbentrop pactpurportedly dictated by Soviet concerns for the unity of the Belarusian people was a propaganda myth. Mass killings and deportations of Belarusians, as well as the transfer of Vilnius, which was then the most important center of Belarusian culture, to Lithuania (Oct. 10, 1939) prove that the Soviet authorities were least concerned about the national needs of the Belarusian people."
"The area of West Belarus included operations by the Polish Home Army, whose strategy included acts of terror against Belarusian teachers, etc., as part of a plan to include Western Belarus into a post-war Polish state."
"Approximately four million Belarusians were victims of political terror, executed, deported, or otherwise forceably relocated, mostly to the Asian areas of the USSR/Russian empire."
Source: BelaPAN, No. 72; Friday, December 17, 1999; 7:00 p.m.
1939-1945: The Destruction of Belarus during WWII
A very, very complicated and horrific period of Belarusian history. Over 25 percent of the Belarusian population was killed, and following upon the millions of victims of Stalin's genocide of Belarusians (as well as other nationalities within the USSR and surrounding nations) during the 1930's, Belarus has not yet recovered from this period. Almost all citizens of Belarus only know about this period in terms of Soviet (pro-Russian) propaganda.
Chief among the events of this period was the exploitation of WWII by the USSR (Russia) and Poland in destroying and dividing Belarus and Belarusians. The USSR used Belarus as a "moat," and was very willing to destroy and sacrifice both the people and the cultural history there. (For example, the Soviet NKVD set fire to Mensk as part of its chaotic and unorganized retreat in the face of the Nazi invaders.) Some Belarusians also turned to the Nazis (in various degrees) to help rid Belarus of the invaders from the east. "Partisans" (irregular soldiers) representing all sides of the conflict roamed the forests and countryside, some of these people no different than armed gangs.
Many thousands of Belarusians were enslaved, robbed, raped, tortured, and murdered by Nazis and Soviets (and partisans) alike--many people ran from both invading armies. Some Belarusian nationalists appeared on both the Nazi and Soviet sides of the war in hopes that aligning with one or the other would result in a better Belarus after the war. Other Belarusians fought against both the Nazis and the Soviets. The majority of Belarusians simply tried to survive.
These horrific events still resonate in Belarus today (often exploited in emotional terms by its rulers), and continue to divide the Belarusian communities world-wide.
Also see: In the spring of 1940, about 4,500 reservist officers were executed (massacred) by the Soviets at The Katyn Forest Massacre near today's Smalensk, Russia (but a historically Belarusian region through the early 20th centry). Until recently, these officers had all been assumed to be Polish, but recent research includes many Belarusians and Belarusian Jews among the total.
Also see: The Chatyn (Khatyn) Memorial A memorial to the 186 villages in Belarus (including their inhabitants) burned by the Nazis during WWII.
Also see: Cherven [Igumen] Massacre by Soviet NKVD (1941) absent from Soviet, Russian, and official contemporary Belarusian governmental histories is the recording and mention of tragedies such as this one.
In December 1943, at a summit meeting with the Soviet leader, Josef Stalin, the leaders of America and Britain had already secretly agreed as to what constituted the post-war Soviet "sphere of influence". Needless to say, Belarus had no input to this decision.
Belarus and the Holocaust
Concerning this horrific episode of human history, there is no lack of resources available.
Some of the resources also discuss Jewish history in Belarus, but many do so without identifying Belarus.
No involvement by Belarusian representatives in this treaty (as was normal for most of decisions made about Belarus during its modern history).
Treaty at conclusion of WWII that included the division of Belarus between its more powerful and brutal neighbors.
April 26-28, 1986: The Nuclear Power Plant Disaster, Chornobyl, Ukraine
Although there are no nuclear power plants in Belarus, for some suspect reason, there are three such complexes very close to Belarus' borders in Ukraine, Lithuania, and Russia. From April 26-28, 1986, there was a catastrophic accident at the facility near Chornobyl, Ukraine, less than 6 miles from the southern border of Belarus--and more importantly, upwind.
Over 20 percent of Belarus' land was contaminated by radiation, and over one-half million people had to be relocated. Seventy-five percent of the destructiveness of the disaster fell on Belarus. This contamination still affects Belarus today, country-wide (to some degree).
The (lack of) response by the government of the USSR, and the current policies of the government of Belarus have compounded the destructiveness of the catastrophe.
July 27, 1990: the Belarusian Declaration of Sovereignty
The date celebarates Belarus' 1990 declaration of sovereignty from the Soviet Union. The current pro-Soviet, pro-Russian authoritarian government does not recognize the holiday and habitually denies permission for public events to remember the day.
The Declaration of Sovereignty is given the status of a constitutional law, which was used as the basis for amendments to the 1978 BSSR constitution (after the collapse of the hardline coup in Moscow).
March 15, 1994: The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus is Adopted
The beginnings of a democratic constitution, with guarantees of freedom of expression and explicit statements that the government is not allowed to control the media (this article is still part of the weakened constitution and clearly demonstrates that authoritarian regimes can ignore constitutions, when they choose to, with no repercussions).
Also, in the summer of 1994 (July 10), Alyanksandr Lukashenka was elected president. This election is the closest thing to a fair, democratic election in the post-Soviet history of Belarus (though for a country with virtually no experience with multiparty elections, and not without significant controversy; e.g., someone shooting (or not) at Mr. L while campaigning). None of the subsequent elections have been accepted by major international organizations.
May 14, 1995: National Referendum on State Symbols
Voters approve (sic) the Lukashenka-initiated issues: (1) The return of Russian as the second, dual official language (along with Belarusian) — though in fact, Russian has replaced Belarusian as the official language (refer to news stories about police beatings and judge's attitudes toward those speaking Belarusian). (2) Closer integration with Russia, (3) Power to the president to dissolve parliament, and (4) using national symbols almost identical to the Soviet ones for Belarus (BSSR), similar to those of the early 1950s.
Also refer to the April 11, 1995, hunger strike by 19 Belarusian parliament members (who opposed the referendum since they felt it was in violation of the constitution), the resultant beatings of the parliamentarians by police (and the lack of any punishment for the police), and the resulting approval by the parliament of the referendum after the beatings.
The first of all national elections to not meet international guidelines, observers, etc., for being free and fair.
The traditional, white-red-white flag is used today as a symbol of defiance (and annoyance) to the current, authoritarian regime. For examples, see Examples of displaying the White-Red-White flag on the Charter 97 Web site. Also go to State Symbols for background information about these symbols.
November 24, 1996: Referendum on the Belarusian Constitution
The "referendum" (sic) of Mr. Lukashenka's significantly weakened major democratic aspects of the Belarusian constitution and codified his authoritarian power.
Another in the series of national elections to not meet international guidelines, observers, etc., for being free and fair.
October, 2000: Parliamentary Elections
These are the first parliamentary elections to occur since the referendum of 1996. According to OSCE/ODIHR, these elections failed to meet international standards for democratic elections.
Another in the series of national elections to not meet international guidelines, observers, etc., for being free and fair.
March 19, 2006: Presidential Election
Western observers have deemed the elections rigged. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) declared that the election "failed to meet OSCE commitments for democratic elections."
Another in the series of national elections to not meet international guidelines, observers, etc., for being free and fair.
See Wikipedia for a summary (although they try a bit too hard to be "objective" IMHO, and leave out essential information about closed media outlets, "disappeared" opposition politicians and journalists, and so forth)
Athletes, Artists, Historical Figures, Who's Who, Writers, etc.
Books about the History of Belarus
Notes: There is a huge problem regarding all of the books published in Belarus on the topics of Belarusian history, culture, its people, and so forth. That is, such materials written during the Soviet period--and still in use--lack credibility (to make a huge understatement). Refer to the preceding Introductory Notes.
Depressingly, while many other NIS countries have corrected or are in the process of correcting the Soviet propaganda that was marketed as history, Belarus' revised textbooks are stored in warehouses and the Soviet-era books are still in use. Censorship, including that of pre-twentieth century history, is very much in existence in Belarus today. . . .
How can a nation work to solve the very serious problems of the present and take on the challenges of the future if it cannot acknowledge its past? . . . .
The best starting point to learn about the history of Belarus is to refer to the books noted in the history book section of this Web site, and especially the three references mentioned below.
Belarus: At a Crossroads in History, by Jan Zaprudnik (1993). The most complete reference for English speakers. Included is a chronology of events from the 6th century through to spring, 1993. Although published in 1997 in Belarus (in Belarusian), it was heavily censored.
Historical Dictionary of Belarus, by Jan Zaprudnik (1998). A concise summary of Belarusian history in dictionary form (only 330 pages). Much briefer than one might expect from its title and catalog description, this is, however, an essential resource for the English-speaker interested in Belarus.
Belorussia: The Making Of A Nation, a case study, by Nicholas P. Vakar (1956). This book is also considered an equally important (if not more so) and essential reference about Belarus for English-speaking readers. Difficult to find, other than in libraries, as it is long out of print.
Links to Belarus History on the WWW
The best starting point for a general, multimedia introduction to Belarus is the following site maintained by Alex Artsyukhovich and others: The Virtual Guide to Belarus